January 10

You guys are are working really hard to get the assignments done.  Great job!  I would like you to take today and review your posts so far.  Make sure you have answered all of the questions, and double check the writing tips found on our class blog.  Once you have proofread and reviewed your published posts, carry on.  Keep up the good work!

Module 6: Reflection

I found the readings on social learning theory and self-efficacy informative, practical, and inspiring.  I experienced a range of emotions when immersed in the material.  I was fearful when reading Pajares that I would discover I was failing my own students by virtue of tearing down their self-efficacy in my words and actions in the classroom.  I cried when I read Dweck’s description of John Wooden, the coach.  I screamed in rage when Gladwell discussed the decrease of student performance as a result of a long summer break.  

Most of the students I teach display low academic proficiency and are below grade level in skills and concepts.  They are on free and reduced lunch and come from broken homes.  Quite a few of them have police records of which most are from drug related charges.  They struggle with academic success and teaching them learning skills and building self-efficacy is something I strive to do to the best of my ability every day that I teach.  For this reason, Module 6 brought about deep self reflection for me at a time that could not have been more perfect. (Everybody is always a little grumpy at the end of a semester.  The anticipation of Winter Break looms and we are ready for a reprieve ~ sorry Gladwell)

Bandura (2011) states, “To be an agent is to influence the course of events by one’s actions” (pg. 4). I agree with Bandura that a person can control certain conditions of one’s lives such that pure circumstance rarely occurs. Just last week I had a student who flew off the handle because I asked her to complete an assignment.  She cussed, stomped out of the room, and left.  The next time she came to class, I took her out into the hallway to talk and work things out so we could work together.  She apologized for her behavior and proceeded to tell me she has a lot of things going on that she cannot control.  For a little background, this student is 18 and lives on her own.  Previously, she had been in foster care lived with many different families.  My response to her reason for losing her temper:   “Everyone is dealt a hand of cards in life.  How you play those cards is completely up to you.” 

A lot of the students I teach live without positive influences in their lives.  Being a thug is cool--Not studying for a test is accepted norm.  I would love to express to my freshman Bandura’s view on fortuitous events and the trajectories upon which life travels. I found my next T-shirt saying:  “Hanging out in a University library will spawn different intersects than hanging out with Hell’s Angels” (pg. 9).

Bandura quoting Pasteur, “Chance favors only the prepared mind” (pg. 9) prompted reminiscing of my only swim conference championship I ever obtained.  Mental preparation for a race was a strategy I took very seriously throughout my career.  I finally got the chance to capitalize on it. 

I enjoyed Module 6 and social cognitive theory.  I found it easy to relate to my personal and professional life.  (and I am buying a John Wooden book for myself for Christmas!)

Module 5: Problem solving and Metacognition

Worked-out examples are often used to demonstrate the procedural tasks needed to obtain a solution.  If presented effectively, worked examples can also address metacognition skills needed to solve novel problems.

Teaching problem solving is tough.  There are many of lists depicting problem solving processes available for educators to use to teach problem solving skills.  Most of the lists are based on the work of George Polya (1887 – 1885) who believed that the skill of problem solving should be taught.  He identified four principles that form the basis at solving a problem:

1.       Understand the problem

2.      Devise a plan

3.      Carry out the plan

4.      Reflect.

My students often grasp the numerical calculations with ease.  However, their lack of metacognition skills prohibits them from solving similar problems that may include one or two structural changes.

For example, the other day we were covering percent increase and decrease.  Part of the lesson included us working through examples like the following:

a.       What is the percent increase from $345 to $689?

Following five or six problems written as above, the students were asked to flip the worksheet over and complete five problems on their own.  The following represents the type of problems on the back of the worksheet:

a.       Original Amount:  $5000

Final Amount:       $7800

Find the percent increase.

            The students had a very hard time completing the problems on the back of the worksheet on their own.  I found this interesting.  The second type of problem is seemingly more straightforward.  What is it, then, that is keeping the student from being able to solve the problem?

In my opinion the students are lacking mathematical literacy and metacognitive skills.  “What is the problem about?”  "How is this problem similar or different from problems that have already been solved?”  Encouraging students to think this way is a challenge.  Designing instruction to support the development of metacognitive skills in students must include careful planning and monitoring by the teacher. 

Which makes me question why the idea of teaching with minimal guidance became an issue in the first place?  Students struggle with sovling problems on their own. (Why else would we need teachers?)  Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) found that strong instructional guidance rather than constructivist-based minimal guidance was more effective.  I believe metacognitive skills instruction can be supported by constructivist-based activities and these activities should be monitored closely by the teacher so that students receive ample support for skill development. 

Module 5: Blog Post 1 Metaphor for Learning

“Swimmers, take your mark…” A metaphor for learning.

            The starter calls the field to the blocks.  “Take your mark.”  There is a pause.  I can feel my heart beating in anticipation of the starting device that will be begin the race.  It was March of 1993, I was about to swim my last race of my last meet of my competitive career.  For 18 years, I trained countless hours side by side with my father who was my swim coach.  I dedicated myself mentally, physically, and emotionally for almost two decades to swim this last race.  The starter goes off.  This is it.

Educational metaphors use symbolism to link ideas about teaching and learning to something more familiar.  There exists nothing more familiar to me than the sport of swimming.   The more I contemplated the use of this metaphor, the more similarities between learning and swimming arose.  Next, I will elaborate on one of the similarities that I found. 

Social

Throughout my swimming career, I was surrounded and supported by a team.  We worked, laughed, and cried together every step of the way.  We formed a group of people who shared common goals over an extended period of time.  Our performances were a direct result of premeditated training whether it was for conditioning and strength or drill work for better stroke technique.  However, a fortuitous result occurred in that we learned to function as a team and strive to reach beyond our potential.

Educational theorist, Etienne Wenger defines Communities of Practice (CoP) on his website as “groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly.”  Further Wenger points out that his definition of CoP allows for but does not require intentionality.  Learning can be an incidental outcome that accompanies the social interaction within a group that shares common goals.  Wenger (1998) states,  “The point  is not that classroom instruction is to be avoided or that a training function is useless, but that both are supplement, not substitute for, the learning potential inherent in practice” (pg. 250).   Even though, in practice, teachers are required to teach the curriculum, a deliberate set of outcomes, there are times when students create and construct knowledge through engaging in and contributing to the practices of the classroom. 

Wenger’s theory of CoP is rooted firmly in social development theory as discussed by Vygotsky and Piaget.  According to Vygotsky and Piaget, social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development.  Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development.  In his book  Mind and Society: The development of higher mental processes, Vygotsky (1978) notes that a child’s development occurs first on the social level, then on the individual level.  This is in contrast to Piaget’s understanding in that he held that the development of the child comes before learning.  In either case, Vyotzsky and Piaget agree that social interaction plays a key role in learning.  Wenger expands the consensus to include both intentional and non-intentional occurrences of learning. 

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity: Cambridge University Press.

Wenger, E. (n.d.).  Communities of Practice.  Retrieved from  http://www.ewenger.com/theory/

Module 4: Worked Examples & Schema Acquisition

A secondary mathematics course, such as algebra, often employs the use of worked examples as an instructional device.  The role of a worked example serves as a key component to understanding the problem type being taught and can be presented to the class in multiple ways.  Under the behaviorist tenet, a teacher presents the worked examples, explains the necessary procedures to obtain the solution, then through guided practice the students utilize the worked examples to work similar problems upon which the students receive feedback regarding their progress.  Using a constructivist approach, the instructor provides students the opportunity to construct mathematical ideas by posing real world problems as examples.  Here the goal would be for the students to realize the procedure to solve the given problem through exploration and discussion as facilitated by the teacher.  In either case, the instructional goal for the lesson would be schema development of the problem type in the student’s long term memory that enables the transfer of information learned to novel problems.

Comprehension of the material is governed by factors such as presentation, relevance, and difficulty level of the content.  However, retention and retrieval are regulated partly by the effectiveness of structure of the lesson design and partly by the individual memory of the student. To design effective worked example presentation it is important to consider the individual memory of the student.  Marsh and Butler (in press) concur in their article stating, “It is key to consider what type of processing different learning strategies encourage.”  The psychological perspective of memory is important to regard when designing instruction using worked examples. 

Atkinson et al. (2000) suggested that highlighting certain subgoals of the problem increase the likelihood that learners will be able to transfer the problem’s structure to novel problems.  Hence implying the problem schema has been formed in the student’s long term memory.    Marsh and Butler (in press) discuss similar strategies in their article.  The human brain has the innate ability to create logical connections between related parts and the bigger picture.  Labeling and visually isolating certain features of the worked examples can direct the learner’s attention to the structural nature of the problem and helped students form connections thus further facilitating schema acquisition.

Regardless of what theoretical approach is taken when designing worked example instruction, the strategies employed should minimize superfluous material and optimize training opportunities to facilitate schema constructions. 

Atkinson, R. K., Derry, S. J., Renkl, A., & Wortham, D. (2000).  Learning from Examples:  Instructional Principles from the Worked Examples Research.  Review of Educational Research, 70(2), 181-214.

Marsh, E. J., Butler, A. C. (in press).  Chapter 29:  Memory in Educational Settings.

Simon, M. A. and Schifter, D. (1991).  Towards a constructivist perspective:  An intervention study of mathematics teacher development.  Educational Studies in Mathematics, 22(4), 309-331.

What should teachers do with learning styles?

What should teachers do with ‘learning styles?’

As a teacher, I have sat through many professional developments designed to teach us how to assess learning styles and how to use them effectively in the classroom.  As a doctoral student, I have learned there are multiple modes under which instruction is more effective.  One of the issues that designers deal with is how to present information in instructional materials in such a way that learning is optimized.  Presenting information in two sensory modalities rather than one leads to a more efficient use of memory resources because the modality-specific subsystems of the working memory are utilized optimally.  Tindall-Ford, Chandler, and Sweller (1997) explored the effect of bimodal instruction in their study that compared student performance using audio text and visual diagrams to students who just used visual-only format.  They concluded that presentations incorporating two sensory modes are more effective than one.  This effect was further explored and named the modality principle by  Mayer (2001). 

Based on my experience, here is what I know to be true:

1.     There are different ways to learn.  The ways are what some deem as ‘learning styles’

2.    There are individual differences in learning

3.    Students learn differently depending on many things.  For example, the topic, the teacher, the type of presentation, the temperature in the room.  (and in high school, the moon phases).

4.    Learning can occur in an infinite number of ways.

In short, I agree with Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer, and Bjork (2009) and in my opinion, learning ‘styles’ do not exist.  Each student may have a learning preference, per se, but to design instruction based on a single style of learning seems to me to be counterproductive given the many different ways of learning something. 

To answer the introductory question “What should teachers do with learning styles?” I offer two suggestions.  First, teachers need to recognize there are different ways of learning and incorporate a variety of activities in a lesson that support various learning preferences.  Second, while individual learning styles are important, it may be more effective to match instruction to the content that is being taught. 

While researching information for this blog, I came across the following article.  The author, David Glenn, discusses the Pashler article.

http://chronicle.com/article/Matching-Teaching-Style-to/49497/

Mayer, R.E. (2001).  Multimedia learning.  New York:  Cambridge University Press.

Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D. & Bjork, R.  (2009).  Learning Styles:  Concepts and Evidence.  Psychological Science in the Public Interest.  (9), 105-119.

Tindall-Ford, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1997).  When two sensory modes are better than one.  Journal of Experimental Psychology:  Applied, (3), 257-287.

Module 3: Activity 1: Learner Attention

According to information processing theory, humans are processors of information and cognition is a system of brain functions. A student’s contact with the information and knowledge they are expected to learn is through their sense receptors.  The sensory receptors allow the student to make contact with the environment.  While the sensory register has large capacity, the information stored does not last long.  Attention plays a key role in moving information from the sensory registry to working memory.  In working memory, the information is processed.  It is here where students try to make sense of the instructional material and content.  Information in the working memory must be kept active to be retained as activation fades quickly when attention shifts away.  Consequently, maintaining the attention of a student is a key component of effective instructional design.  If nothing is done to gain and keep student attention during the presentation of instructional material, the information to be learned will be lost.  Effective design of instruction plays a key role in gaining and maintaining student attention.

          Robert Gagne, one of the key researchers and contributors to Instructional Systems Design.  His research originated during the behaviorist movement and his focus was on the outcomes, or behaviors, that resulted from training.  However, in his book, The Conditions of Learning (1965), Gagne outlined nine events of instruction which contained the underpinnings of cognitivism and information processing.  His Nine Events of Instruction correlated the conditions that occur during instruction with student outcomes. 

          Gagne noted in order for learning to take place you must first capture the attention of the student as his first of nine steps was “gain attention.”  This is where Gagne believed that instruction should stimulate receptors of students so that they were primed and ready to learn.  Beginning a lesson with an animated multimedia clip that is accompanied by sound is an effective way to stimulate multiple sensory receptors (visual and audio).  Another way to gain student attention is to start a lesson with a thought-provoking question such as one that sparks student curiosity and that motivates the learner.   

          Beyond gaining attention of the learner, it is important to consider strategies to maintain student attention throughout the instruction.  The following is a link to a video in which a college professor discusses strategies he uses to keep students in a large college lecture interested in the material.

Engaging Student Attention Video:  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Au_Navo5PCg

          Another way to keep students interested in the material is to use multimedia in presentations.  There has been much research on the effective pedagogy and the use of multimedia presentations during instruction.  Mayer (1997) reviewed eight studies that were conducted to determine whether multimedia instruction was effective.  Overwhelmingly, the evidence showed that using a presentation with verbal and visual multimedia formats was more effective than direct instruction.

          Soon after Microsoft released PowerPoint, it became the preferred method of information delivery in many classrooms.  Educators took advantage of this new media and began using the program to present instructional material.  It rejuvenated what was once considered the ‘boring lecture.’  However, soon thereafter the novelty of the multimedia program wore off and students were once again bound to their seats listening to another ‘boring lecture’ except this time they were looking at a screen instead of just the teacher in the front of the room.  Bartsch and Cobern (2003) investigated whether students liked and learned more from PowerPoint presentations than from overhead transparencies.  They concluded that PowerPoint can be beneficial, but material that is not pertinent to the presentation can be harmful to student learning.

          A couple of years ago, I took a class under the direction of Dr. Gerry Swan where we discussed the downfall of PowerPoint as an instructional tool.  The following two videos put a humorous spin on some of the design flaws when using PowerPoint that can distract or lose the attention of the learner.

 Don McMillan: Life After Death by PowerPoint Video: 

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lpvgfmEU2Ck

STOP! You're killing me with PowerPoint (Rap) Video:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_JU48-FVqvQ

          Whether using a Powerpoint or other multimedia tool for presentation, I think a key component of maintaining students attention during instruction is to engage the learner…make them feel a part of the instruction so that they feel ownership.  Students learn by doing and passivity dampens motivation to learn. 

Bartsch, R. A. & Cobern, K. M. (2003).  Effectiveness of PowerPoint presentations in lectures.  Computers & Education, 41(1), 77 – 86.

Gagne, R.M. (1985).  The conditions of learning and theory of instructions (4^th ed.).  New York:  Holt, Rienhart, and Winston. 

Mayer, R.E. (1997).  Multimedia learning:  Are we asking the right questions? Educational Psychologist. 32(1), 1-19.